xt7zcr5nc05g https://exploreuk.uky.edu/dips/xt7zcr5nc05g/data/mets.xml  Hotchkiss, Willard E. 1939 Other contributors: National Research Project on Reemployment Opportunities and Recent Changes in Industrial Techniques (U.S.); United States. Bureau of Mines. 2 v. (xxx, 436 p.) : ill., maps ; 26 cm. Mineral technology and output per man studies ; report no. E-9. Part of the Bert T. Combs Appalachian Collection. UK holds archival copy for ASERL Collaborative Federal Depository Program libraries. Call number FW 4.7:E-9. books  English Philadelphia, Pa. : Work Projects Administration, National Research Project in cooperation with Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines This digital resource may be freely searched and displayed in accordance with U. S. copyright laws. Maryland Works Progress Administration Publications Mechanization, Employment, and Output Per Man in Bituminous-Coal Mining- Vol. 2 by Willard E. Hotchkiss [et al.] text Mechanization, Employment, and Output Per Man in Bituminous-Coal Mining- Vol. 2 by Willard E. Hotchkiss [et al.] 1939 1939 2015 true xt7zcr5nc05g section xt7zcr5nc05g ·Z " > I, -¢v—   I  I I I I I I . . , .
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Reemployment Opportunities and Recent Changes 3
in Industrial Techniques_ Q
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MECHANIZATION, EMPLOYMENT, AND OUTPUT PER MAN g
IN BITUMINOUS—COAL MINING 5
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by ¥
Willard E. Hotchkiss, A
F. G. Tryon, Charlotte K. Warner, L. N. Plein, Walter M. Dake, E
R. L. Anderson, J. J. Gallagher, and Margaret H. Schoenfeld a
VOLUME II I
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? BASES FOR ANALYZING PERFORMANCE OF MECHANICAL-
g. AND HAND—LOADING MINES*
g` The importance of loading from the point of view of employ—
§_ ment and the rapidity of the transition from hand to machine
if methods make mechanization of loading by far the most important
E current item of mining technology. Loading coal into mine cars
E. employs more men than any other deep—mine occupation. Studies
? of the Bituminous Coal Division of the National Recovery
E. Administration in 1933, when all but 12 percent of deep—mine
g` tonnage was loaded by hand, revealed that from 50 to 60 percent
Q of all the persons employed in underground bituminous mines
€‘ were occupied with loading coal. Today, with approximately
; 25 percent of the tonnage loaded by machines, the ratio of
i loaders to other employees is somewhat smaller, but loading
Q still offers far greater potential employment than any other
Q deep—mine process. The remainder of this report, therefore,
i will deal with output per man in the several coal regions and
Q the relationships between mechanical loading and productivity.
ii It is first necessary, however, to list and describe briefly
if a few of the important nontechnological causes of change in
g- the statistical measures of average output and to appraise
li the statistical data which form the basis for the analysis.
tx NONTECHNICAL CAUSES OF INCREASED AVERAGE LABOR OUTPUT
il
  Concentrntion of Product ion in More Efficient Minas
gl Among the causes of increasing output of mine labor, use of
Q mechanical power has undoubtedly been outstanding. Power has
§ long been used in auxiliary operations such as pumping and
i ventilating and since 1890 has been applied in underground
l p mines tocutting, hauling, drilling, and finally toloading coal.
E A Strip mining embodies an exceptionally intensive application
gi ` *By Frederick G. Tryon, formerly Chief of the coal Economics Division or the U. s.
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BASES FOR ANALYZING LOADING PERFORMANCE 177 i
E
of mechanical power for removing the earth and rock covering i
the coal and, as in underground mining, loading, hauling, §
and other processes are highly mechanized. g
. Notwithstanding the technical progress in all divisions of g
mining activity during the past generation, the adaptation Q
of mine processes to these changes required the exercise of s
managerial functions which are indispensable to a well—rounded i
operation of any mine and especially of a mechanized mine. A
Such functions involve mine lay—out, personnel, and above all A
the synchronizing of the several operations. g
There is, however, still another important factor which A
affected the recorded average labor output. The demand for ¥
coal during the World War brought thousands of new mines into A
production and resulted in the expansion of what later proved {
to be an already overdeveloped industry. Although capacity K
continued to increase for a time after the war, it soon became ii
obvious that the t0p—heavy structure must collapse; between 3
1923 and 1929, 3,274 commercial mines; went out of business, {
with a corresponding shrinkage in the number of jobs. _
Even after this drastic liquidation capacity was still in i
excess of demand, and in the depression years 1929-32, 630 more §
commercial mines went out of business. It is true that some §
of these 3,904 mines that closed were worked out, but the l
great majority of them were marginal, high—c0st mines that f
could operate only in periods of attractive prices. For {
the most part they labored under competitive disadvantages, E
unfavorable resource conditions, and managerial difficulties. Q
The closing of such mines tended to raise the average level {
of labor productivity. é
The brunt of the liquidation in the years 1922-29 fell upon Q
the mines that produced from 10,000 to 50,000 tons a year. g
In figure 37 it may be seen that the curve showing the number {
of mines in this group (known as Class 4) dropped from 3,139 E
in 1922 to 2,047 in 1924, and the downward course continued Q
through 1935 (see also table B—18). Class 3 and Class 2 mines, §
those producing from 50,000 to 100,000 and those producing E
100,000 to 200,000 tons a year, declined in number less sharply E
1"Commercial mines” is here used to designate all mines with an annual production  
of more than 1,000 tons as distinct from small-scale operations, known as wagon 2
m1nes” and ”cou.ntry ¤anks”. producing less than 1,0CO tons annually.  
i

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W 178 BITUMINOUS COAL
E
i_ than Class 4 mines in the years prior to 1930. At the same
¤ .
§` time, Class 1 mines, those producing over 200,000 tons a year,
ir actually increased in number between 1923 and 1929. It is
i interesting to note that Class 5 mines, those producing less
i than 10,000 tons a year, showed a rather surprising vitality
§_, between 1923 and 1929. The total significance of this group,
i however, is slight.2
l
i It may also be seen in figure 37 that Class 1 mines, those
E producing over 200,000 tons a year, have consistently pro-
,· duced a much larger share of the total output than have any
rl other class. It is notable that the proportion of total
{ output produced by the various size groups declines with
i the size of mines. This means that, in spite of the large
i number of small mines, the bituminous industry is essentially
E, a mass—pr0duction industry in which the average unit labor
ii . . . .
U requirements are determined chiefly by the concerns having
i the larger output.
D
il Liquidation of smaller mines of course added to the con—
H . . . .
; centration of tonnage in mines of large capacity. In 1923
? about 47 percent of the bituminous tonnage of the country was
5 produced in mines with an output of over 200,000 tons a year,
.N a figure comparable to war and pre—war averages. This group
f lost its relative advantage in the immediate post—war years,
; but between 1923 and 1929 it increased its percentage of total
li output from 47.2 to 65.2. During the depth of the depression
P Class 1 mines again lost ground to other groups, but in 1935,
I 62.2 percent of the total output came from this group, and
i in 1936, 69.0 percent.
{ The accompanying tabulation, prepared from studies of the
g United States Coal Commission and the United States Bureau of
l 2This showing was due ln part to more complete llsts of small operators avallable
{ ln later years and in part to the fact that mines that had once been ln a higher
{ group dropped into the smallest group during the period. Many of the mines ln this
1 lowest group are known as ”l0cal commerclals”, a designation coming from the fact
F that they serve a local market, often using a truck for delivery. Such mines
are not subject to competltlve pressure to as great an extent as are larger mines
which ordinarily must depend on commercial industrial markets. The same line of
~ reasonlng largely explains the lncrease ln the number of mines ln this group
; after 1929, when mlnes ln other size groups were decreasing. The actual vltallty
{ cf truck and wagon mlnes with their local domestic markets was undoubtedly greater
P. _ under adverse conditions than that of the somewhat larger mlnes. The truck mlnes
P were likewise favored by the increasing mileage of hard roads.
F Figures for 1954 and 1935 are not fully comparable with those for preceding
i` years since the coverage of small trucking operations was much more complete
1 after 1953 than lt had been before. Thls improved coverage was made possible by
Q the cooperation of the NRA Zlvlslonal Code Authorities.
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’ Figure 87.- NUMBER OF COMMERCIAL BITUMINOUS-COAL MINES AND 5
15 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTION, g
BSS BY SIZE OF MINES, 1905-86 Q
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MINERAL TEC-N;LCGv NCD CU’PLT PER MAN S'UD1ES  
_ BASED ON TABLE B—lB w‘FA—NAT\’Jf·.AL F2£SE&;ZC—* WQOJECT E—\63  
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  180 BITUMINOUS COAL
ii
§- Mines, shows clearly the relationship between size of mines or
Q_ companies and output per man—day:3
i
i Production Output per man per day
.  
[ ('°°“S) 1905 1914 1920 1921 1929
i Under 10,000 1.96 2.29 2.30 2.70 2.74
g_ 10,000 to 50,000 2.52 2.91 3.24 3.45 3.42
Q 50,000 to 100,000 2.90 3.35 3.30 3.93 3.91
g_ 100,000 to 200,000 3.34 3.73 4.10 4.26 4.54
$_ Over 200.000 3.30 4.13 4.50 4.73 5.32
E` All classes 3.23 3.71 3.99 4.19 4.77
Q It is clear that small mines show a lower output per man per
§  day. In part, the relation is a reflection of seam thickness
h and other physical factors, because natural conditions that
I limit the output per man tend also to limit the output per acre
f» of coal land, and therefore, other things being equal, make for
J. . . .
‘ smaller mines. Conversely, favorable natural conditions
E that permit high output per man make for larger mines. But, in
Q part, the higher labor productivity of larger operations is a
i matter of superior management and equipment. Large enterprises
if command the services of skilled engineers in planning and
N operating mines and are ordinarily in a better financial
{ position to invest in up-to—date machinery; they have more
.. favorable market connections and operate a greater number
Z of days per year. In other words, large—scale mines are
» similar to other large—scale enterprises in that they can
F realize the savings of mass production.
{ It should be clear, then, that the elimination of many weak
i. mines and a growing concentration of tonnage in the hands
i of large—scale producers have contributed to raising average
{ output per man—day. Because the component units that make
1
i up the totals of all mines change from year to year, changes
_ in average performance reflect to some extent the changes in
y · the composition of the group.
{ .._...._.
g 3Data tor 1904·21 from Report of the United States coal Commission (S. Doc. 195.
g seth Cong., 2d sess., 1925), pt. III, D. 1333. The figures represent mines 0f
;_ commercial size exclusive of so—called ¤local commerclal¤ mines employing less
{ than 10 men.
{ Data for 1929 from F. G. Tryon and L. Mann, *Coal,* Mineral Resources of the V
E United States: 1929 (U. S. Dept. Com., Bur. Mines. 1932), Part II, ¤N0nmetals,*
L 0. 720. Only independent companies are included; captive or consumer-owned
§' mines have been excluded.
t
§.
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E
BASES FOR ANALYZING LOADING PERFORMANCE 181 i
, E
Shifts From 01d to New Minins Arena i
In 1890, 65 percent of the bituminous output of the country {
was produced in four northern States — Pennsylvania, Ohio, i
Indiana, and Illinois. Twenty—four years later, in 1914, {
production coming from these States had declined to 57 percent. §
i
The percentage coming from the four southern States — Kentucky, 1
Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia — had increased from 1
12 to 25 between 1890 and 1914- The following quotation ¥
indicates the importance of this relative growth in the tonnage g
coming from the South. W
Whereas .... southern Ohio declined notably h
in relative importance among the fields of the {
_ Appalachians competing in western markets and whereas I
` the Pittsburgh district also lost in relative stand-
* ing, shipments from northern West Virginia increased, j
; the non-union regions of eastern Kentucky were
_ developed with extraordinary rapidity, and an entire {
' new field - Logan County, West Virginia, coming into A
` first production in 1905 — had taken rank as one .
; of the most productive districts of the country
X by 1914 ..... In 1898, B6 per cent of the coal
shipped up the Lakes originated in the union dis- i
· tricts of Pittsburgh and Ohio. In 1913 their share Q
; had dropped to 67 per cent. In 1898 southern West g
I Virginia shipped to the Lakes only 40,000 tons, §
or less than 1 per cent of the total. In 1913 its
- contribution ran over 8,000,000 tons, or 23 per cent
of the total.4 {
' In general the coal fields in the northern States mentioned i
were close to the great consuming markets and were naturally i
the first to be opened. With the development of railroads, W
which gave southern fields access to markets under low per—mile l
freight rates, the stimulus of highly flexible wage scales §
incident to the nonunion labor policies then prevailing in {
those areas resulted in a rapid growth of southern tonnage. g
At times, also, large—scale suspension of mining in the or- Q
ganized fields of the North threw business to the South. {
Until 1923 the growth of the southern fields was relative, i
but northern shippers continued to increase or at least to hold ;
their total annual tonnage. After 1923 an actual displacement Q .
of tonnage occurred, caused primarily by widening differentials· i
in wage rates, and during the remainder of the 1920IS, as g
I 4F. G. Tryon, ¤The Effect of Competitive Conditions on Labor Relations in Coal E
Hln1ng,¤ The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, q
Vol. CXI (1924). D. 87.  
 
i

 .·9_ p, 1 , ·. - ` § g
 -
l 182 BITUMINOUS COAL
F
g' the South increased its tonnage, that of the North sharply
l, declined, not only relatively but absolutely.
l
fi Table 17 shows the proportion of the national bituminous
é output produced from 1920 to 1938 in each of the four important
g northern and the four southern States mentioned. It may be
at noted that the northern States dropped from 59 percent of
Q the Nation's tonnage in 1920 to Q1 percent in 1927 and the
E. southern fields advanced from 26 to Q5 percent. In other
E words, nonunion States with no fixed standards of wages and
IZ· working conditions absorbed more and more of the business.
§‘ The low point for the northern area was reached in 1927, when a
1:
i rolon ed strike occurred. Between 1 2 and 1 2 the revious
9 9 9
I trend was reversed; in the latter year the four northern States
lt produced 46 percent of the total output and the four southern
if » .
  States pI'0ClUC€Cl L4.] p€I`C8I1T1. Tl'l€S€ p€I`C€I1lZ3.g€S have I`6IT16.1I1€·d
[ relatively constant through 1938.
  Table 17.- PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL BITUMINOUS-COAL PRODUCTION
  PRODUCED IN THE IMPORTANT NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN STATES,
5 1920-378
   
_ Northern Southern
il Year west
Tomai 1111n¤1s rnaiana Penn- Ohio Terai Ken- T°¤— Virr vxr-
U sylvania tucky nessee ginla gina
l *
  1920 58.8 15.6 5. 1 30.0 8. 1 'zs.s 6. 3 1.2 2.0 16.0
Q 1921 57.2 16.7 4.9 27.9 7.7 28.0 7.6 1.1 1.8 17.5
` 1922 51.6 13.9 4.5 26.8 6.4 32.7 10.0 1.1 2.5 19.1
Q 1923 56.3 14.1 4.6 30.4 7.2 30.2 7.9 1.1 2.1 19.1
q· 1924 51.9 14.1 4.5 27.0 6.3 33.5 9.3 1.0 2.2 21.0
1. .
it 1925 48.7 12.9 4.1 26.3 5.4 I 37.6 10.6 1.0 2.5 23.5
.1 1926 47.7 12.1 4.0 26.7 4.9 ' 39.5 11.0 1.0 2.5 25.0
if 1927 41.2 9.0 3.5 25.7 3.0 45.0 13.4 1.1 2.5 28.0
{ 1928 43.8 11.2 3.3 ‘ 26.2 , 3.1 42.4 12.4 1.1 2.4 26.5
L 1929 46.0 11.4 3.4 26.8 *4.4 I 40.6_ 11.3 i 1.0 2.4 25.9
  1930 46.5 11.5 3.6 26.6 > 4.8 y40.4' 11.0 , 1.1 2.3 ,26.0
. 1931 46.2 11.6 3.7 1 25.6 15.3140.8 10.5 1.2 2.5 26.6
1932 43.7 10.8 4.3 l 24.1 4.5 j42.7 11.4 1.2 2.5 27.6
1933 45.0 11.2 4.1 \ 23.8 5.9 @42.7 10.8 1.1 2.5 28.3
  -
N, 1934 46.4 11.5 4.1 I 25.0 5.8 {41.8 10.7r 1.2 2.6 27.3
é 1935 46.4 12.0 4.2 24.5 5.7 41.3 11.0 I 1.1 2.6 26.6
[ 1936 .46.2 11.6 4.1 25.0 5.5 41.5 10.8 1.2 2.6 26.9
E; 1937b 45.9 11.6 3.9 24.9 5.5 I41.6‘ 10.6 1.2 3. 1 26.7
  aigmputoq {ram qatn 1n _\1insr::lRescurces cf the United States ([5, 5, Dept. gnu., Geclcgltal
E Survey. 1920-28 U. S. Dept. cam., Bur. Hines. 1924·31)£ St:1tist£c¤ZA<;pe¤diz to Minerals
1 Yrvback (L;. s, nep:. tnc.. sur. Mines. 19321.3 tc 1935): Minerals yearbook, 1937 (U, s, Dep:.
T nrt,. nur. Mines. 1937). pp. 757*5672 and Eituniicus Coal Tables, J936··1937 (U, s, Dent. Int.,
Nat. Bxtumlnous C0a1Com.. 1958%
  bisiirmtesi.
·l
ix
in . _I '-
?   ° _   1

 I t
6
3
BASES FOR ANALYZING LOADING PERFORMANCE 183 é
t
-Y The data presently available do not show how much the shift i
in relative percentage from North to South may have contributed g
S to an increase in the national average of output per man-day. §
g Average seam thickness in Pennsylvania in 1920 was 62 inches; Q
E in West Virginia, 64 inches; and in Virginia, 62 inches. §
5 Average seam thickness in Ohio was 62 inches, and in the A
E adjoining southern area of eastern Kentucky it was 52 inches. {
F On the score of the most important single physical factor in I
d productivity, therefore, the shift conferred little advantage. 1
_ A greater advantage probably resulted from the factor of age §
E of mines. In 1926, for example, approximately go percent l
S of the output of eastern Kentucky came from mines opened after l
5 1910. In contrast, only about 50 percent of the coal mined I
1 in Ohio during the same year came from mines operated since I
j 1910, and about 15 percent came from mines opened before 1900.
Obviously the operator of a new mine can employ modern prin- i
ciples of mine lay—out and modern technology so as to realize J
significant advantages in labor requirements. Certain limited `
areas of the northern districts had the additional resource
handicap of an advanced state of depletion in particular seams. Q
. Such districts as Clearfield, Pennsylvania; Hocking Valley, E
_ Ohio; and Georges Creek, Maryland, had little thick coal left. §
Whatever the causes, it is a fact that man—day output in Ohio K
and Pennsylvania increased at a slower pace than it did in _
h the newer fields to the south. In Ohio output per man-day z
was actually about 1.5 percent less in 1930 than in 1920, I
whereas in eastern Kentucky man—day output in the same period Q
increased about 23 percent. Pennsylvania showed an increase l
of 22 percent between 192o and 1930; West Virginia 27 percent. Q
These figures suggest that shift of tonnage from north to south g
has been one factor in increasing the national man—day output, g
but it is probably a minor one. g
It will be noted that the comparisons just made apply ex- E
clusively to Appalachian areas; they do not apply to Illinois g
and Indiana. Development of a large stripping industry and g -
the widespread use of deep—mine mechanical loading in the late i .
twenties resulted in substantial increases in output per i
man-day in the Illinois-Indiana area. In spite of this, E
Illinois and Indiana lost tonnage heavily during the period g
of the twenties. In 1890 about 17 percent of the national é
production came from these two States; in 1914 and in 1920 §
,
E

 Q
%.
E.
I 184 BITUMINOUS COAL
t
§· the percentages were 18 and 21, respectively. Compared with
Q. this, only 13 percent of the Nation's output came from Illinois
E and Indiana in the strike year 1927. Since then the area has
E advanced to slightly over 16 percent of the total output of the
Q country, about the same position that it held prior to 1900.
k _.
3 There can be no doubt that the handicap under which the
3 Illinois-Indiana area operated during the twenties was largely
Qi incident to adverse wage differentials and unsettled labor
Q conditions. It is equally obvious that the gain in relative
§» position after 1927 was due in large measure to exceptionally
§¥ favorable costs realized in strip mines and in highly mech-
E anized deep mines which were producing progressively larger
y percentages of the total tonnage from the area.
i. . , .
§ Shifts of tonnage have not been confined to mayor areas;
V;.
L notable shifts have occurred within States. For example,
¥ almost 20 percent of Illinois output no years ago came from
F. the thin—vein longwall district5 in the northern part of the
L State close to the Chicago market. This district has declined
Q as thicker veins in southern areas have been developed. The
` accom anyin tabulation shows the ercenta e of Illinois
P E P E
§ deep-mine output that came from longwall mines between 1900
1 and 1936:6
  Year Percent Year Percent Year Percent
  1900 19.4 1923 2. 9 1930 O.'7
g 1909 12.1 1924 2.6 1931 0.9
j I 1912 9.2 1925 1.9 1932 1.1
  ` 1915 6.9 1926 1.6 1933 1.6
, 1918 5.0 192'7 1.2 1934 2.2
Q. 1920 4.3 1929 0.9 1935 1.5 ·
gr 1921 2.9 1929 1.1 1936 1.4
  1922 2.*7 9 ·
I
s
F
i
F In contrast to 18.4 percent of the tonnage produced in these
i 4 mines in 1900, the percentage since 1925 has been less than
* i 2. . All these lon wall mines were workin thin seams less
v 5 E E
E than 4 feet in thickness; tonnage per miner was correspondingly
YI
   
§~ 5The more common method of mining ln America is the room—and-pillar system
i in which pillars of coal are let: to support the roof. In longwall mining
{ the only pillars left are so-called shaft pillars and sometimes pillars along
l; the mainline haulageways.
I 6Computed from data ln annual Goal Report of Illinois for the years 1900-38
§ (Illinois Dept. Mines and Minerals).
J
E
I

  
BASES FOR ANALYZING LOADING PERFORMANCE 185 é
E
’h low and the piece rate agreed upon to compensate for the §
‘S difficult conditions was correspondingly high. The greater {
‘S output per man that could be realized in the thick seams g
IG in the southern part of the State was, of course, the chief 5
reason for the shift of Illinois tonnage from the north to the §
e south. Although longwall methods were suitable to the veins 3
y in which they were operated, the resource handicap of the thin w
r seams could not be overcome. The shift of tonnage from thinner {
e to thicker seams in Illinois occurred between the years 1900 A
Y and 1918; as a factor contributing to increased labor output, i
— it of course applies only to that period. 1
T Data have not been compiled from which it would be possible g
to measure the extent to which shifts of tonnage from older
J to newer mining areas have increased labor output, but it i
, appears that the over-all influence of these shifts has on the
m whole been favorable. It is not believed, however, that the is
e joint influence of more favorable resource conditions and con- A
1 centration of production in more efficient mines over the `
e period covered by this review has increased average man—day
S output as much as have technical and managerial improvements. 3
O i
Changes in Composition of the Working Force Q
It is probable that the long—time trend of output per man K
has also been influenced slightly by changes in the composition {
of the working force. While historical statistics of the age {
composition of coal miners are meager, the working force .
in the past zo years has contained a larger proportion of §
adult men than at the time of the 1880 census. In that year A
5 percent of the employees above ground and 6% percent of the é
underground force were boys under 16 years of age. As early {
l ` as the 1889 census fewer boys were reported as being attached g
to the industry — 3§ percent on the surface and 3 percent E
, underground. By 1902 the proportion of boys under 16 had de— {
[ clined to 2 percent for both surface and underground employees, E
, and 7 years later (in the 1909 census) less than 1 percent were § -
1 reported in this age group.7 g -
 . 5
G 7ln the antnracite industry the employment of boys was a much greater problem. Min  
E the 1880 census 43 percent of the surface workers and 9` percent of eheh undgergropnu ;
g workers were reported as boys (age not given). They were engaged mainly inathe E
§§§3‘€€§2§fc.s.}€i§ %ii“i§ia¤Ey¤§$€§ JS`? 1“.§*§“.bi€a%’£3§SpE?S§§. 15; “$£€ :.i.%i¥2i;.§a; 5
5 force, and by 1919 toys had practically disappeared as surface workers.  
i
s
§
12

    ‘‘  - 1 '  
Q
i 186 BITUMINOUS COAL
fr
g` The introduction of labor legislation, compulsory education,
i and the gradual advance in living standards have combined
g to reduce greatly, and in most States virtually to eliminate,
Q the employment of boys underground; this has, in a minor way,
i contributed to the indicated gain in productivity.
§. In the meantime, technology itself was doubtless affecting
i the character of the working force underground. The period
i from 1890 to 1936 was one of continuous and rapid change
Et in mining methods. The technical developments are outlined
fyi in some detail in chapter II. Although data are lacking from
Q which to measure quantitatively their effect on the amount
Y and kind of labor employed in mining, it is obvious that such
K important technical changes could not occur without having
·§ an effect on the composition of the working force of mines
§` that became mechanized.
Y Coal—mining literature has not dealt with occupational phases
i L of mechanization to the extent that it has with the machinery
F phase, but a few comparisons of the basic occupations will
i indicate the nature of the change that occurred. Probably the
{ most striking contrast is the one between the amount of labor
it involved in undercutting coal with a pick and the operation
i of a modern cutting machine. Likewise, transition from man
I to animal and then to machine power in haulage is almost
T equally significant in its effect not only on the amount but
_~ on the type of human labor required. The available data
1 in reference to mechanical loading since 1923 make it possible
fl to measure the effect on unit labor requirements of this
{ most recent item in mine mechanization somewhat more closely
i than earlier technical advances can be measured. Even here,
g however, the measurements recorded have to do with the amount
Q rather than the kind of labor employed.
_§ For knowledge of effects of mechanization on the character
gg of the working force, reliance must be placed largely on
%_ personal observations, but it is obvious that the type as well
2 T as the amount of labor required to produce a given output
§ differs in highly mechanized mines and in mines in which many
E of the processes continue to be performed by hand. Changes in
Q the character of the working force are especially pronounced
E in the case of a basic change like the substitution of mechan-
g ical loading for hand loading; the use of a highly developed
5 machine such as the mobile loader obviously intensifies the
M
 
é' .· ’ Z: Q

 I     c . ·#·‘  
 
1
BASES FOR ANALYZING LOADING PERFORMANCE 187 g
E
, change. An employee may have all the qualities required {
1 to do the heavy work involved in shoveling coal and yet not g
» be able to adapt himself to the machine operations incident §
» to mobile loading. §
In considering such adaptations, two important facts must §
3 be